Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Justice - Essay Example The paper also focuses on a very sensitive issue of capital punishment rendered by the courts of law depending on the intensity of the criminal acts. This act of the court is largely contested based on the Christian views where rendering of Capital Punishment is straightly not allowed (Ness, 1994, p.3). The legal system and the rendering of justice is dealt along the study and analysis of three articles in the light of the views imposed by Christianity. Reforming Prisoners through Religion The aspect of reforming prisoners through the approach of religious institutions and not through putting them in prison houses is analysed based on Omar M. McRoberts article â€Å"Religion, Reform, Community: Examining the Idea of Church-based Prisoner Reentry†. This article came out during March 2002, as a Working Discussion Paper for the Urban Institute’s Reentry Roundtable (McRoberts, 2002,p.1). The religious touch rendered to the convicts helps them to bear the atrocities of the p rison climates and a life isolated from their closed ones. However, the main problem in discussion is not of the prison days but rather of the future periods when the convict is made free. Here the person being freed from the prison earns a further challenge in search for a livelihood. These people in the large society feel somewhat insecured and loiter in search for both physical and mental sustenance to help them dwell in the external world. To help find a solution to the aforesaid problem the courts of the land along with religious institutions are increasingly working on the program on Court Services and Offender Supervision Agency (CSOSA) to help the freed prisoners reenter their social and community lifestyles. This program largely focuses to help the freed prisoners gain a better occupational and domestic environment along with rendering mental support so that they do not take to drugs or get emotionally turbulent. The success of the program greatly depends on the activity of religious bodies like Churches, which are not only trying to help the prisoners sustain a healthy mental and physical life inside the condemnation walls but also working outside to help them reenter the social sphere. Churches with their alchemic touch are considered the main instruments that would help these individuals reenter the community circles, which fall under the governance of these religious bodies. Further, the Churches being religious bodies with an open outlook where they do not make any distinction between members and non-members are observed to be the spear headers of the community movement. The main focus of these programs with extensive religious collaboration is to totally change and transform the criminal psyche of the prison inmates into proper civilized mindsets. However, the present urban lifestyles are a bend of continuous physical and mental tensions often amounting to violent and turbulent activities. Thus, it is held that the Christian missionaries must ai m at driving these people to cool pastoral countryside where they can leave a peaceful life and are freed from mental tensions. The freed prisoners settled along free quarters are widely encouraged to participate in the Sunday masses and are regularly associated with the Bible. These activities help cast a strong religious ferment in such people who gradually develop a civilized lifestyle to

Hydroxyl group Essay Example for Free

Hydroxyl group Essay Vanillin is the primary component of the extract of the vanilla beans that is used as a popular flavoring agent in food stuffs. Recently, it was found that some of food processing and food manufacturing companies are making food items using harmful ingredients in order to save their production cost. Since vanillin is used widely in food items as a flavoring agent, I wanted to know more about vanillin through this experiment. The Vanillin constitutes a colorless, prismatic needles which are readily soluble in the common organic solvents. It is also readily soluble in boiling water, but it is sparingly soluble in cold water (E. Gildemeister, 1913). Acetylvanillin will be formed via esterification of vanillin in a basic solution. Procedure1 In this experiment, vanillin will react with the acetylating agent acetic anhydride to form the acetate ester of the phenolic hydroxyl group. Dissolve the vanillin (3. 04 g, 0. 020 mole) in 1 M aqueous potassium hydroxide (22ml, 0. 022 mole) in a 125 ml Erlenmeyer flask. Add it to acetic anhydride (2. 1 ml, 2. 27 g, 0. 022 mole) in ether (45 ml). Stir the mixture until it loses its yellow color and the lower, aqueous layer becomes almost colorless. Pour the mixture into a separatory funnel and draw off the aqueous layer. Decant the ethereal solution into an Erlenmeyer flask and dry the solution with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. Remove the drying agent by gravity filtration into another Erlenmeyer flask. Using the steam bath, strip off the all the ether and allow the residue of acetylavanillin to cool to crystallize. As the final procedure, Recrystlaize the crude product from 40 ml of 50% ethanol in water.

International joint venture

International joint venture Joint venture is one of the preferred international market entry modes by many firms but it suffers high failure rate. Construct a review of literature on how to manage international joint venture successfully. International joint venture is one of the preferred international market entry mode. â€Å"An international joint venture is a separate legal Organizational entity in which at least two partners that are economically, Geographically and legally independent of each other participate† (Frà ©dà ©ric and Pierre 2006). Many multinational corporations use the joint venture as the market entry mode to enter in to developing countries (young,1994: Mickiewicz , 1986). International joint ventures are popular institutional forms chosen by less developed countries to attract foreign direct investment and knowledge . Through the partnership with the foreign venture it will help in knowledge transfer in terms of technology, it also will create employment opportunities in the local country and grow the flow of foreign currencies (Udo ,Sugata and Arijit 2003). In an individualistic grown economy joint venture is used as strategic option. An foreign company can not came a open its branch straight away in the local market, so to overcome this barrier the foreign company merge with the local company to form a joint venture.. The main thing about the joint ventures are the foreign companies jointly decide with the local company to create a legal entity to share the ownership, profit or loss and other benefits of the business. Despite a strong understanding between the companies and with huge amount of resources also, the joint venture achieve a high failure rate. This is because of the differences in culture ,strategy planning and organizing , it initially start with differences an result in problem (Bruce ,1988). One of the preferred international market entry is joint venture, the other entry modes are Licensing , Direct Foreign Investment , Internationalization , Franchising and exports. Joint ventures involve two or more legally formed distinct organizations , each of which shares in the decision making activities of the jointly owned entity (Geringer and Hebert 1991 ; Geringer 1988 ). â€Å"It is deemed to be an international joint venture when at least one partners head quartered outside the ventur e country of activities, or if the Joint Venture has a greater level of operations in more than one country† (Geringer and Hebert 1991 ; Geringer and Hebert 1989). In the rapidly changing international environment the intense technology and timely competition there are major changes around the world that are political and economical . It is closely examined that joint venture or any other forms of business relates with ownership , performance and control (Hans, Stephen ,. 1997) The joint venture suffer a high failure rate because its got more than two parent organization. It is reported that 47% of the firms have more than 3 parent firms. A study in the article states that if a joint venture consist of more number of parent company means it will attain failure. (YAPING , ODED , YADONG and MEE-KAU ,. 2007). The experience of the parent company will influence the joint venture with the company in the developing countries. Essential resources and mutual understanding between the parent companies is important for the joint ventures success. The needed resources and acheived experience of joint ventures parent partner are important to cope the relationship , which leads to trust and ultimate understanding . â€Å"Companies should look for a potential partners with joint venture experiences and should have adequate knowledge to provide complementary resources† (Sim and Yunus. 1998).. For example, Bangladeshi firms should expect foreign companies such with appropriate technology, joint venture experience ,overseas marketing knowledge, managerial expertises and networks. So as the foreign company will look in the Bangladeshi firm is local market knowledge, cost effectiveness in inputs and past joint venture experience. Market strength and technology and export orientation where other im portant successful factors for joint ventures . Unlike the developed countries the developing countries need local parental control and good technology were needed to create its venture to success(Sim and Yunus. 1998). Kathryn 1988 argues that â€Å"Customer Attributes will influence firms abilities to differentiate their product offerings from those of competitors and they will also(1) determine whether sponsoring firms can standardize their respective product configurations across markets (2) grant their ventures much operating autonomyâ€Å" . The change in particular partners strategy , choosing of strategy for the joint venture and the action of the competitors must focus during the changes in the venture. And the dynamics of ventures owner and the partners collaboration must be adjusted to hypothetical changes in the respective strategically need , c apability and success of other owners in the international venture(Kathryn 1988) . The important and most surprising question is , why do joint ventures fail?. The example is This research is based on a systemetic analysis of a joint venture associating a Brazilian company (local partner), Algar, formerly ABC, with a French company Bull (foreign partner). The joint venture was founded in 1983, initially it was called as ABC-BULL but later it changed it name as ALGAR BULL, the change in the balance of power took place in 1989.then the partners separated due to situation of subsidiary. Both the companies attain huge profits but the conditions turned to be unfavorable . In the end Bull took over the entire company from to form Bull South America, right form the beginning Bulls have major rights on the company and more power on decision making process also. The main differences through the joint venture in to dissolution is the cultural factor. It has affected almost everything in that joint venture. Despite its dissolution it is considered to be a successful Joint ve nture(Frà ©dà ©ric and Pierre 2006 ). In the previous empirical studies using the meta-analysis it examines the relation between the culture and decision making strategies. The result declares that individualistic cultures prefers a f orcing strategy more over a collective cultures, wherein more likely collective cultures use withdrawing, compromising and problem solving strategies than that of the capitalistic culture (Lung-Tu 2007). Key factors for managing International Joint venture success are Performance, Human Resource development , Practices based on host cultural characteristics, Quality performance, Training competence, Flexibility and Adaptation , Technological sophistication, Knowledge acquisition from foreign partners, Cooperation between parents, Recourses sharing, Equity sharing, Governance, Political risk in host country these are some of the important key success factors that influence the International Joint venture into success. If there is any misunderstanding or conflict in these issues means it will develop a crack in the joint venture (Michael , Schon and Andreas ,. 2007 ). The individual bargaining power of the partners should determine which of them should bring the particular resources , to cut down the cost (Kathryn 1986 : Beamish , Peter 1997 ). In another example its HERO HONDA , it is the merge of HERO group of India and Honda of Japan to produce bikes, it is one of the biggest and most profit earning company in the world in terms of motorcycle sales . It is selling more than 1 million bikes per year. And it is ranked 108th in The Forbes 200 most reputed companies list 2006. Another popular example for the successful international joint venture is Sony Ericsson. The joint venture of this company was establishes on October 2001, it is the joint venture between Japanese Sony Corporation and the Swedish telecom communications company Ericsson to make mobile phones and smart phones. In the insurance industries there are also some emerging international ventures they are in following examples , such as Aviva Life Insurance Company India Ltd. It is joint venture between the Aviva life insurance in united kingdom and India based Dabur company, its Dabur that holds 74%of the stake in the company and it used the brand name of Aviva. In another example Bajaj Allianz Life Insurance Co., Ltd. , it is the joint venture between the Indian Motorcycle company Bajaj and German Insurance Giant Allianz Insurance. The important thing to be noted in this is that global players in the business world are elaborating there channels through the mode of joint ventures, and they a re also using there experience in to the business they are involved . Which will result in a success rate . Another awaiting joint venture in India is between Indias Bharti group and the worlds largest retailer Wal-Mart . To conclude this essay on International Joint venture, it is that the success of any joint venture is within that organization .in the very beginning itself the counterparts should target a goal and should work towards that. The partners of the joint ventures not only should share profit and losses and resources , but they also should be open to share there operational , strategies , technology ,trust , knowledge acquisition from foreign partners , selection of experienced partner and performances. And they should overcome the barriers such as cultural differences , managerial inequalities ,lack of knowledge, selection of inexperienced partner, lack in communication, and political . These barriers should be carefully tackled otherwise the joint venture will end up in failure. Despite the failures in the international joint venture rate is high companies prefer to go for it , because they enter a new market . Thus the international joint venture should overcome the above mentioned odd s and barriers to become successful joint venture in the international market . References : Udo Broll, Sugata Marjit, and Arijit Mukherjee 2003, ‘FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT, CREDIBLE POLICY: The Role of Risk Sharing‘, THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE JOURNAL, Volume XVII, No. 2 : Pg 165-176 Geringer, J. Michael., and Louis.Hebert, 1989, ‘Control and Performance Of International Joint Venture . Journal Of International Business Studies, 20: Pg 235-254. Geringer, J. Michael., and Louis.Hebert. 1991, ‘MEASURING PERFORMANCE OF INTERNATIONAL JOINT VENTURES , Journal of International Business Studies; 1991, Vol. 22 Issue 2, p249-264, Geringer, J. Michael. 1988. Joint venture partner selection Strategies for developed countries. West-port Conn.: Quorum Books. Killing, J. Peter. 1983. Strategies for joint venture success. New York: Praeger. Bruce Kogut ,.1988.‘Joint Ventures: Theoretical and Emperical Perspectives , Strategic Management Journal ,Vol. 9, Pg319-332 . Hans Mjoen . Stephen Tallman,. 1997. ‘Control and Performance in international Joint venture. ORGANIZATION SCIENCE ,. VOI. 8, No, 3. Richard N. Osborn ,. and John Hagedoorn , 1997. ‘THE INSTITUTIONALIZATION AND EVOLUTIONARY DYNAMICS OF INTERORGANIZATIONAL ALLIANCES AND NETWORKS . Academy of management journal. Vol.40,No. 2 , 261-278. Frà ©dà ©ric Prevot, and Pierre-Xavier Meschi. 2006 . ‘Evolution of an International Joint Venture: The Case of a French Brazilian Joint Venture. Thunderbird International Business Review, Vol. 48(3) Pg 297-319 YAPING GONG, ODED SHENKAR, YADONG LUO and MEE-KAU NYAW ,. 2007 . ‘DO MULTIPLE PARENTS HELP OR HINDER INTERNATIONA JOINT VENTURE PERFORMANCE? THE MEDIATING ROLES OF CONTRACT COMPLETENESS AND PARTNER COOPERATION , Strategic Management Journal,. 28: Pg 1021 -1034. Michael Nippa , Schon Beechler and Andreas Klossek ,. 2007. ‘Success Factors for Managing International Joint Ventures: A Review and an Integrative Framework , Management and Organization Review.3:2 2007 A. B . Sim and Yunus Ali ,. 1998.‘Performance of international joint venture from developing and developed countries : An Emperical Study in a Developing Country context . Journal Of world Business / 33(4). Lung-Tu Lu,. 2007. ‘The Effect Of Cultural Similarity On International Joint Ventures: An Emperical Study . International Journal of Management. Vol.24 No.2 : Pg 230-241 . Kathryn Rudie Harrigan,. 1988. ‘Joint Venture And Competitive Strategy. Strategic Management Journal. issue 9: Pg 141-158 (1988). W. Beamish, J. Peter Killing,. 1997. Cooperative Strategies : Asian Pacific Perspectives. Craig C. Julian,. 2005. International joint venture performance in South East Asia. Kathryn Rudie Harrigan,. 1986. ‘ San Francisco: new Lexington Press .

How to make Paper :: essays research papers

Paper is a thin, flat material produced by the compression of fibres. The fibers used are usually natural and based upon cellulose. The most common material is wood pulp from pulpwood (largely softwood) trees such as spruces, but other vegetable fiber materials including cotton, linen, and hemp may be used. A stack of 500 sheets of paper is called a ream. The edges of paper sheets can act as very sharp razors, leading to paper cuts. Manufacture Whether done by hand or with a Fourdrinier Machine, the paper making process has four simple steps: Preparation of the fibres The material to be used for making paper is first converted into pulp, a concentrated mixture of fibers suspended in liquid. As many of these fibres are derived from natural sources, this process often requires many stages of separation and washing. Once the fibers have been extracted, they may also be bleached or dyed to alter the appearance of the final product. Forming into sheets The pulp mixture is then further diluted with water resulting in a very thin slurry. This dilute slurry is drained through a fine-mesh moving screen to form a fibrous web. A watermark may be impressed into the paper at this stage of the process. This moving web is pressed and dried into a continuous sheet of paper. In the case of the mould process, a quantity of the pulp is placed into a form, with a wire-mesh base (or other draining device), so that the fibres are left coated on the mesh and excess water can drain away. At this time, pressure may be applied to remove more water through a squeezing action. The paper may then be removed from the mould, wet or dry, and go on to further processing. Most mass-produced paper is made using a continuous (Fourdrinier) process to form a reel or web. When dried, this continuous web may be cut into rectangular sheets by slitting the web vertically and then cutting it horizontally to the desired length. Standard sheet sizes are prescribed by governing bodies such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Further additives Raw paper that contains only pressed and dried pulp is very absorbent (for example, blotting paper), and does not provide a good surface upon which to write or print. Thus, a huge variety of additives are employed to add desired properties to the paper. These are applied in a coating called the size. Sizing agents are often polymers designed to provide a better printing surface.

Insight on Macro Economics

Question 1: financial globalization Over the years since World War 2 we have seen economists battle on the idea for and against of financial globalization. The topic had been there during previous years but not much attention was paid into it, it only attracted attention after the effects of World War 2 let to social unification. This is idea suggests that all the countries of the world should unite economically by setting up a global financial institution to standardize al the economic activities of the world. The pros and cones have laid out with case studies on regional bodies and domestic financial institutions being cited to back up various claims that take different stands on the issue.Both Mishkin and Rogoff acknowledged that if the world would be a better place if it had a global financial institution. Even with this in mind, they never failed to say that the idea is a pipe dream as there are many economic, social and political variables round it. Unifying all the three factors would be daunting even from the onset and it would be a miracle if the unification worked. They stated that even if all odds were beaten and the institution was formed; developing countries would end up losing market and money as the developed countries would exploit them. The two agreed that if formed, the international institution would be more successful as it will have many investors from developing countries and be disbursing high return interest loans to developed countries for them to invest in developing countries. Professor Kling agrees with the two economists up to the point that formation of a global financial institution is an imaginary (Lawrence-2001) object but takes a turn on the point that the institution would be more successful. Kling argues that economic problems domestic institutions face are the exact one the global institution will face but a larger and much devastating state.If a crisis arises, the international institution would cut the money it loans and raise the interests on the money. This would not be harsh stance as just like any business, the institution would want to grow its profit base and reduce risks. Developing countries that would by then be so dependant to the institution will be affected terribly as the probability of their economies collapsing would be so high. Mishkin, Rogoff and Kling all agree with this theory and each of them made reference to the behavior of the international monetary fund when an economic crisis arises. Benefits that the international institution will pass to the global community fixed. It would quickly restore liquidity if asked to because it would have a perpetual stability and flow of cash. Making available long term loans will be an easy task for the institution (chui-2002). Opening markets will be among the merits of an international as all countries will be operating under the same economic laws. Diversifying the market base will be another benefit as there will be numerous markets for different goods. Note; the previous statement will work if the global community allows production specialization policy to work. All these benefits have been agreed to by Mishkin and Rogof but Kling refutes the point that loans will be available to all countries. He says that is an impractical suggestion. There are elaborate disadvantages of the international institution if it is formed. Huge disparities in economic growth would be inevitable. We would see developing countries grow in economy as the developing counties would be seeing a drop in their GDP. The institution will cause an increase of taxes globally incase an economic bomb explodes and its liquidity goes down. The institution will kill productivity of small countries if it does not make policies that facilitate the smooth transfer of technology from developed to developing countries. Most of the skilled and unskilled labor force in developed countries will be left jobless as their companies will prefer manufacturing products in less developed countries that have low wage payouts.Question B1: contrast on transmission mechanismsTaylor and Lucas are profound economists that have made phenomenal economic revelations and added spice to works of Meynerd Keynes. Their insight on transmission mechanism is what staged their professionalism and expertise in the field of economics. They have divergent and convergent views relating to the topic; let us analyze them. The similarity they hold is that they both support the use of short term interest rates and investment on short term high return bonds and securities to propel economic growth, better known as financial market price review (taylor-1995). They say this is the only way the American banks maintain their liquidity. They also agree that how money is transferred between accounts and the number of times it circulates should be increased so as to maximize its efficiency; this is known as limited participation (tobin-1969). Credit view is one of the clashing points between the two professionals; Taylor fully supports the policy but Lucas admonishes it. Taylor advocates for unison change in lending rate policies among banks as Lucas stands for free financial flowing activities. Question B2: not what they had in mindKlings books explains a chronological order of events that led to the 2007/2008 financial crises that left many big companies bankrupt and with large debts, this is the year in united states history that stock prices shot and the exchange market remained shocked. He states that it is also a year to be remembered as there was widespread public outcry because people were being kicked out of their mortgages (kling-2009). It depicts how the bad economic policies made by previous governments led to the catastrophic time. He compares the laws of the times from 1930 to 1970 then 2001 when the policies were changed but that that could not save or salvage the 2008 disruption from taking place. The title highlights that the thoughts that were behind the previous policy makers did not come to be as they made poor economic judgments. The general idea is that the policies be changed and that companies customize the laws according to their own needs to avoid a scenario similar to the 2007/2008 one. The book gives insights and acts as a wake up to the policy makers, the banking and insurance companies and the general public; main consumers.Mr Kling urged the public to come up with innovations that would help cruise through bad economic times like the one in 2007/2008. He also urges the government to thoroughly scrutinize bills before passing them into laws as they would turn to be harmful in future times. He made the previous as a sig to acknowledge that economic forces are not static and they require revision from time to time. Here he lay an example that innovation would help reduce future effects as they did by helping quash the Glass-Stealgall act of 1933 (krugman-2002). The act prohibited interstate banking and also outlawed the merging of investment and commercial banks. Many economists including Kling said that the policy makers of that time passed the act as they thought that if banks were allowed to operate nationally they would be more powerful than other federal agencies. They also thought that merging of banks would create a monopoly and catalyze an economic breakdown.By equity finance; financial institutions would be reducing the economic burden by sharing risks. Kling sees this method work more efficiently if financial institutions merge. He also adds the money to be placed in the investment should be given I bits. This will allow the institution to study the market as the venture grows, in case they notice a downward or predict a loss the company can always pull out of the deal safely. This method has fewer sets of threats to loss than giving out all the cash for investment in one bit. Equity he says will prevent a coming from running out of liquidity. If the investment return is high, an institution can always remain in service even if it is funding different projects from different parties. In his introduction Mr Kling named bad bets and excessive leverage to be among the four practices financial institutions engaged in that led to the crisis. Prior to 2008 many lenders would typically really on institution credit scores before giving out loans; if they noticed that the borrower had good scores they would not hesitate giving him the loan in one sum. They did this even before assessing investment they were funding. The financial institutions would later come back to collect the money or claim the property, this is what led to the collapse of minor banks in the US. In his analysis if the matter he states that equity finance can help counter this effect as institutions that use it will save money and reduce the risk of becoming bankrupt by 40%. It is the excessive bets placed on none return investments that lead to excessive leverage. He structures the equity funding policy as a way of keeping the financial institutions in check with their investments. The actions that I would propose to the state is; creation of a federal body that will be mandated to assess the market viability of projects and investment opportunities. This body should then approve and certify that the project is truly worth the money requested in the quotation. I also recommend that banks be more open with their liquidity information and hand it over to the body that certifies projects. After certification the body will now recommend the project owner to an institution with that kind of money. This action will save many banks from collapse as many of them succumb to greed; bad bets.ReferencesBook written by Michael Chui in 2002Sovereignty liquidity crisis; analysis and complications for public policyBook written by A Lawrence in 2001International financial crisis; causes prevention and curesOnline Article from the new York times newspaperhttps;//www.nytimes/2002/08/02/opinion/duby-s-double-dip.htmlBook written by professor Kling'Not what they thought'Book written by Tobin in 1968 and published in 1969Theory of investmentBook written by Ando in 1958 and published in 1963'The life cycle theory of consumption'

President Nixons International and Domestic Challenges

Name Teacher AP US History September 20, 2012 President Richard M. Nixon’s administration had to face many international and domestic challenges in the United States between 1968 and 1974, some positive and some negative. His achievements in expanding peaceful relationships with both China and the Soviet Union are contrastingly different with his continuation of the Vietnam War. In the end, Nixon’s scandals and abuse of presidential power caught up to him, and his administration did much to corrode America’s faith in the government. In 1968, Richard Nixon gave his acceptance speech at the Republican National Convention(Doc A).He said that it was time for a new leadership for the United States of America, and that new leadership was him. Nixon won in a very close election against Hubert Humphrey and promised to restore law and order to the nation’s cities. What everyone didn’t know was that for him to achieve his future accomplishments, he would dest roy the nation’s trust. A positive international challenge that Nixon was involved in was seeking better relations with China. Early in his first term, Nixon and his adviser, Henry Kissinger, began sending subtle proposals hinting at warmer relations to the People’s Republic of China’s government.When both countries hinted at this, Kissinger flew on secret diplomatic missions to Beijing and in July 1971, the President announced that he would visit the PRC the following year. This confused most American’s at the time because they believed that all communists countries were evil. When Nixon flew to China in February and he met with Mao Zedong. Nixon’s visit included a vast shift in the Cold War balance, putting the U. S. and China against the Soviet Union. Several months later, Nixon traveled to the U. S. S. R. and met with Leonid Brezhnev and other Soviet leaders.The result this trip was the signing of the Antiballistic Missile Treaty of 1972. The t reaty restricted the number of ICBMs each nation could manufacture and stockpile and it was part of SALT (Strategic Arms Limitations Talks). Nixon’s visits to China was a triumph because it contained the Soviet Union from expanding and gaining power. His visit to the U. S. S. R. was a diplomatic accomplishment because it improved relations with them. Nixon faced many international disputes during his presidency and some of them, he responded to negatively.Throughout the Vietnam War, President Nixon had sent a letter to President Ho Chi Minh stating that he believes the war has gone on to long and it needs to stop(Doc B). When the letter didn’t work, the biggest international challenge for Nixon was how to end the Vietnam War. Nixon and Kissinger both had a belief that they could end the war in six months, but they were proved wrong. In 1968, the same year Nixon was elected, there had been two huge events of the Vietnam War, the Tet Offensive and My Lai Massacre. Presid ent Nixon had inherited the burden of the Vietnam War and he asked the American citizens for their support(Doc D).Two months into his presidency, Nixon realized that there seemed to be no end in sight to the war. In 1969, Nixon ordered the secret bombing of Cambodia. The targets of these attacks were sanctuaries and base areas of the People’s Army of Vietnam and forces of the Viet Cong, which used them for resupply, training, and resting between campaigns across the border in the Republic of Vietnam. Nixon’s purpose for the bombing raid was because the first had been unsuccessful. The purpose of the secrecy was to protect Sihanouk. The way Nixon responded with the secret bombing was negative.He never told America or the Congress about it and that led to the distrust of the American citizens. Environmental concerns were a challenge but Nixon responded to them positively. In Nixon’s presidency, he started out opposing environmental laws. But then he realized that protecting the environment was popular and he saw it as a politically beneficial area. By the time of his resignation, he created more laws than any other president before him. In early 1970, President Nixon signed the legislation that became the National Environmental Policy Act. He announced it was the first symbolic act of â€Å"the environmental decade. Between the years of 1970 and 1972, Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency and signed laws including the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Another thing he did was sign executive orders and international agreements on environmental issues. In early 1973, an international conference was held to discuss endangered species. The product of the conference was the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. The U. S. needed a new legislation to meet some of the agreement’s provisions and it led to the Endangered Species Act.In Nixon’s Sta te of the Union speech in 1973, he called for stronger wildlife protection. The results of these environmental laws and international agreements made the public extremely happy. Even though Nixon’s intentions were selfish when he got involved in environmental concerns, he responded unquestionably positive. All his hard work helped pave the way for a cleaner society. In 1973, an oil crisis began when the members of the OAPEC (consisting of the Arab members of OPEC, plus Egypt, Syria and Tunisia) proclaimed an oil embargo in response to the United States decision to resupply the Israeli military during the Yom Kippur War.The embargo happened when 85% of American workers had to drive to work every day. President Nixon had to set the course of voluntary rationing. He proposed an extension of daylight savings time, had gas stations hold their sales to a max of ten gallons per customer and a maximum speed limit of 5o miles per hour, and asked companies to trim down work hours(Doc H ). The price at the pump rose from 30 cents a gallon to $1. 20(Doc C). Nixon also had Congress approve of a Trans-Alaskan oil pipeline. Nixon responded to the recession the best way possible. The embargo was lifted on March 18, 1974.The downfall of Nixon was his worst domestic challenge. America found out about his scandals and it led to his resignation as president. The Watergate Scandal starts when Nixon won the 1968 election, one of the closest elections in U. S. history. In 1970, Nixon approves a plan for a greatly expanding domestic intelligence gathering by the FBI, CIA, and other agencies. A few days later he has second thoughts and revokes his approval. Then in June of 1971, New York Times begins publishing the Pentagon Papers. The Pentagon Papers is about the Defense Department’s secret history of the Vietnam War.In September of the same year, the White House â€Å"plumbers† unit burglarizes a psychiatrist’s office to find files on the former defense an alyst who leaked the Pentagon Papers, Daniel Ellsberg. The White House plumbers unit got their name from their orders to plug leaks in the administration. The year of 1972 is a busy year. On June 17, five men were arrested trying to bug the Democrats offices at the Watergate hotel. The Washington Post reported many things that year. One was that a $25,000 check wound up in the bank account of a Watergate burglar.Another was that John Mitchell controlled a secret Republican fund used to finance widespread intelligence-gathering operations against Democrats. Nixon was reelected president in one of the largest landslides in U. S. history in 1972 against George McGovern. His inaugural address said that since he was elected in 1968, America has been better(Doc F). But the truth was, that in 1973, Nixon was turning out to be anything but great. In the beginning of 1973, former Nixon aides G. Gordon Liddy and James W. McCordJr. , convicted of wiretapping in the Watergate incident. Then, H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman, and Attorney General Richard Kleindienst all resigned over the scandal. John Dean, a White House counsel, was fired. In May, Elliot Richardson taps Archibald Cox as the Justice Department’s special prosecutor for Watergate. Later, in June, John Dean tells the Watergate investigators that he discussed the Watergate cover-up with Nixon at least 35 times and the Washington Post reports it. In July, Alexander Butterfield revealed in his congressional testimony that since 1971, President Nixon had recorded all conversations in his office.When the Senate asked Nixon for the tapes, he refused. On the Saturday Night Massacre, Nixon fired Archibald Cox and Elliot Richardson and William D. Ruckelsshaus resigned. When Nixon reluctantly agreed to hand over the tape, there was an 18 minute gap. Nixon kept giving them pieces of the tape when they asked for them(Doc G). He never just handed over all the tapes. The Supreme Court ruled that Nixon must turn ove r the tape recordings. In 1974, the Washington Post reported that the inevitable was nearing(Doc I).Nixon was faced with certain impeachment, so in August of 1974, Richard Nixon became the first ever president to resign and Gerald Ford became the next president. President Richard Nixon’s presidency had many ups and downs when it came to dealing with the international and domestic challenges in the United States between 1968 and 1974. His most notable domestic actions were economic, and his international actions were his priority. Despite his ruination and disgrace in keeping secrets from America, Nixon did help establish relations with Communist China and ended the Vietnam War.